High volume production, one-off specialty projects, large or small components, we’ve got the expertise to meet your surface finishing needs. A brief introduction to the superfinishing of the bearing rings process and its distinctive features has to be done in order to justify the model of wear to be used. Depuis 1971, la société VICARI VIOLLAND vous accompagne dans tous vos projets et développements. Developed in the early 20th century, nitriding has evolved into a standard process across many industrial applications. Oct 26 2016. soft copper. A. 133 μ. p0240 In the second half of the twentieth century, it was recognized that grinding is a. Courbon et al analyzed experimentally the effect of superfinishing processes on surface roughness and bearing parameters of a SAE 5120 steel. No. Grit. Sometimes referred to as micro-finishing, the superfinishing process refines a component’s surfaces. The handbook “Metal cutting tech-niques for copper and copper alloys”Super finishing or micro finishing are polishing processes which use bonded abrasives. Bluing, sometimes spelled as blueing, is a passivation process in which steel is partially protected against rust using a black oxide coating. Abstract. A long overnight soak is often best. It can also be used for grinding applications, drilling and general machining of aluminium and yellow metals. ; Hard-chrome Coating for cylinder, rolls, rods, & rotating parts. copper roll, ceramic roll, tungsten carbide roll, etc 크랭크축, 기어축, 실린더, 엔진부품, 속업소버, 콘베어링. Often referred to as just “Ceramic”, Norton Quantum’s patented ceramic form of aluminium oxide is harder and sharper than conventional abrasive grains. Secret Lives Rewards and How to Unlock. To begin our faux oxidized copper look, we want to create a shimmery metallic base, just like real copper. Usinage de précision, décolletage, tournage de pièces complexes dans toutes matières et traitements. Abrasives. Copper per 100 grams. Copper Mountain mine, near Princeton, B. The two remaining sets were superfinished by vibratory finishing as well discussed elsewhere. 28. Surface. g. The Copper Hat – Store in Victoria, BC – 560 Johnson Street #100, Victoria, British Columbia. However, the surface of a component is not. 54 gear ratio. Superfinishing includes centerless superfinishing and reciprocating superfinishing. Sb. In contrast to the classic lathe turning and grinding methods, there is full surface contact between the tool and the workpiece. The growth of isotropic superfinishing in the gear industry has only served to increase the need to evaluate alternative surface roughness measurements due to its profoundly different surface characteristics. ) per side, hardened, cold treated, tempered, copper stripped, ground, honed, surface. The solution then converts the iron on the metal surface into a compound known as magnetite. 42925 W. Recently, a hybrid. Just rub it in with a clean rag, let sit briefly, then polish, rinse, and dry. Southwest United Industries, Inc. Adams Copper 33" Single Bowl Undermount Farmhouse Apron Kitchen Sink by SINKOLOGY (362) SALE. References Grinding is a superfinishing process similar to lapping but uses larger abrasive particles. Key words: Texturing; Superfinishing; Surface; EDT. 823 - 0. Figure 8—Entire gear train after superfinishing. The fine abrasive grit is incorporated in finishing compounds, coated abrasive lapping films, superfinishing bonded abrasive products, and/or polishing compounds. Stripping rates of ca. Superfinishing Machine Nano. Slightly higher in viscosity than KG3X which allows more oil to remain on the part while honing. REM Surface Engineering has been providing turnkey installations to its customers for over four decades with excellent results. 0. • can be mounted in the steel holder of the. Keep adding compound to the wheel regularly. The superfinishing process removes material on surfaces after modifications, using fine-grit abrasives to remove the residual layer left over from previous operations. Bonded abrasive sticks/stones are used. Electric work done by a galvanic cell is mainly due to the Gibbs energy of spontaneous redox reaction in the voltaic cell. White aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, cubic boron nitride, or diamond abrasive is used. The BTGS, showed that superfinishing significantly reduces micropitting in comparison to baseline gears. Powder-bed fusion, DED, Binder Jet, Metal. The superfinishing process is used for increasing mirror and precise finishing to improve surface finishing. For instance, when manufactured products possess smooth surfaces, they resist wear and tear better than finished parts with rougher surfaces because friction levels remain lower. 2. These process technologies are applicable for both traditionally formed components via REM’s ISF ® Process, as well as for AM components via REM. As. Nano finishing is. Figure 3. The ring gear has a diameter of 8. Machining surface finish influences the quality, durability and performance of manufactured parts and components. Superfinishing machining has a particular impact on cutting mechanics, surface integrity and local electrochemical behavior. [4] This finding stresses the importance of surface finish for resisting the formation of micropitting. Copper is a chemical element that is also a metal. After brushing, the metal surface is excluded from all fine particles and metal residues by rinsing. The leftover amorphous layer left behind from the preceding procedures is removed during superfinishing. Slightly higher in viscosity than KG3X which allows more oil to remain on the part while honing. and it can be used to remeove small pits from the gear if found early enough, and restore the gear to a serviceable condition. Burnishing Definition:- Burnishing operation is the process of getting a smooth and shiny. High-Temperature Machining Guide Machining Guides • High-Temperature Machining Guide Nickel-Base Superalloys • Properties: High-temperature creep resistance, corrosion resistance, and thermal shock resistance. In this column, we build on those concepts and discuss the Isothermal Transformation or Time-Temperature-Transformation curves. Ra and 13. For manual polishing with LUXOR® Microfiber. After copper plating and polishing. ☎ We will answer your questions: +1 248 349 9450. Call us now on 01908 648757 for the latest machine offers. It is commonly used as the final finishing process for the rolling. Creating optimal surfaces on metal components is REM’s business focus. Precision Castparts Corp. The second seeks to remove the. isotropic superfinishing occurred in 2009 with the invention of chemi - cally and mechanically accelerated superfinishing processes (called the Rapid ISF® Process by REM). They have facilities around the world and all North American plants are ISO 9001:2008 certified. Burnishing is a superfinishing process of obtaining a very fine surface finish having a grainless appearance on metal objects. Copper is an essential trace mineral necessary for survival. Vibratory tumbling systems are the most widely used finishing systems for continuous and batch parts finishing. Call our finishing experts today at 1-844-623-7998. The most active SHFE 2401 copper contract prices opened at 67900 yuan/mt and finished at 68020 yuan/mt last evening, up 0. However, cellular copper levels are tissue specific. Tumbler, disc, drum, or vibratory finishing equipment is used with abrasive media and compounds. REM’s ISF ® Technologies are able to controllably remove the white layer from components like gears and have been used in this capacity for over 15 years. Copper per 134g leg. Lapping slurry or fluid suspension of very small abrasive particles is used between the workpiece and the lapping tool. It generally consists of two half cells and a salt bridge. REM’s complete isotropic superfinishing systems are robust equipment solutions for increasing the quality, volume, and reliability of the metal finishing and surface polishing processes at your company. M. Thielenhaus Technologies is a leading provider of custom microfinish / superfinish solutions for large, medium and small businesses. This research aims to investigate the effect of adding copper oxide nanoparticles. PDJ vibratory finishing machine eliminates labour-intensive deburring of aluminium and copper parts. The isotropic superfinishing process refines carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium, and other alloy surfaces with non-hazardous, environmentally friendly chemicals. soft copper. Superfinishing machining has a particular impact on cutting mechanics, surface integrity and local electrochemical behavior. Copper, Chrome, Aluminium, Stainless Steel, Plastic, Brass, Ceramics and Tungsten Carbide. Nano finishing is an emerging field of manufacturing science, which imparts a high level of surface smoothness, wherein surface roughness lies in range of the nanometeric scale (0. Supfina SuperfinishingIn today's video we present in the context of our "What is. 2 Protectaclear. The invention discloses a superfinishing device for ribs of inner rings of tapered roller bearings and process. The next step in processing is called beneficiation. Its rolling action removes material from recesses, pockets, and bores on delicate parts, making it ideal for almost any size and shape part. of wheel, dia. Dialux® polishing bars are ideal for use in the jewellery and watchmaking industry. Isotropic superfinishing and electrochemical grinding are examples of chemically accelerated processes. These can be effective in the short term but leave a surface that is active and tarnishes again quickly. Copper corrosion 3 hr at 100°C ISO 2592 ASTM D 130 1a Brugger Lubricant Tester N/mm². b) Work piece. Many coatings meet FDA, USDA, and AgriCanada standards, and federal and military spec requirements. Superfinishing is utilized in applications where the component's surface polish is essential to its success. We have tested Supercopier 2. REM Surface Engineering's ISF® Process Overview. A conversion coating produces a metal oxide layer on the surface of a metal part that protects. Conventional gears are made by wrought steel, but in the last decade increasing efforts have been made to manufacture powder metallurgy (PM) gears. 001 – 0. The 0. For some applications, the lap or lapping plate surface should be soft enough to. 1 to 100 nm). 60-80. REM’s ISF ® Technologies are able to controllably remove the white layer from components like gears and have been used in this capacity for over 15 years. A piezoelectric force transducer has been adapted and used to measure the forces acting on the abrasive stone during superfinishing of hardened steels. Superfinishing machining has a particular impact on cutting mechanics, surface integrity and local electrochemical behavior. Super finishing of oxygen-free high thermal conductivity (OFHC) copper disks is of great interest as copper is widely used material for high power rated mirrors in laser and other optical systems. The surface will also be minutely wavy, with chatter marks that are invisible without. As ketchup or tomato paste, it’s already at the ideal consistency. The REM Process is known to reduce cycle time. superfinishing process. Certifications: ISO 9001:2000; MIL-SPEC / MIL-STD; RoHS; FDA. Copper is a part of many coinage metals. A basic understanding of superfinishing for metal components. By Nathan Michaud - February 17, 2017. 9 Mile Rd. Mudgil reiterates: "Copper peptides work as antioxidants and are also thought to stimulate collagen and. Reviews laud the metal fabrication in Singapore for their good service and they always managed to accommodate customers’ requests. Int J Manuf Technol Manag 2013; 27: 130–141. Chamber Volume Litres. Superfinishing Method. The ability to plate all metals including aluminum and stainless steel allows Carlton Cooke to service all industries including architecture and architectural metals, furniture, lighting, hardware and. Superfinishing of spherical components. Shops offering chemical finishing may provide a coating produced by chemical or electrochemical treatment of a metal surface. This is typically done in rinse water tanks containing chemicals like alkalis, acids, surfactants, and certain solvents. 1-3 kg/cm^2 10-14 m/min 400-1000 0. Our superfinishing process is designed to refine and polish surfaces to enhance component performance. Thus, hot forging technology has a special place in producing parts of superior mechanical properties with minimum waste of material (2). SONG. P. As ketchup or tomato paste, it’s already at the ideal consistency. The manufacturer may have protected the shipment. Nano finishing is an emerging field of manufacturing science, which imparts a high level of surface smoothness, wherein surface roughness lies in range of the nanometeric scale (0. Burnishing is used to produce an array of products including cutting tools, turbine blades, airfoils, curved pipes, optics and needles. 10 Copper Facts. Furthermore, as the temperature of the workpiece prior to forging approaches the melting temperature, the flow stress and energy required to. Lightweight and Eco-Friendly: Copper is a lightweight material, which means it puts less stress on a building’s structure compared to heavier roofing materials. Superfinishing Unit the EDT-machine allows particularly the reduction of roll changes in the mill as well as constant roughness of the sheet during the rolling process. Regardless of the type of racing, the gears are. Superfinishing is a mechanical material removal process that is performed on material surfaces after they have already undergone some type of finishing or other surface modification process. REM’s ISF ® Process is the ultra precision application of our isotropic superfinishing technology for subtractively manufactured components. Lightweight tool used for faster file copying and moving, often used as an alternative to the default. The only other chemicals in the solution are maybe a couple of percent of free nitric acid and from 0 to about 90 g/l copper as copper nitrate [affil link]. – Tulsa operates from a 100,000+ square feet modern and well-maintained facility in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Read verified and trustworthy customer reviews for The Copper Hat or write. 675) today to see how we can help solve your surface finishing/polishing needs. The #8 Super Mirror Finish is a highly specialized finish produced by circular oscillating buffing, initially with abrasive compounds, followed by a rouge-like compound. The Abrasive Particles are Mixed with a Water-Base or Oil Base Liquid. However, the surface of a component is not. 6. The diverse manifestations of mechanochemistry probably share a similar mechanism, whereby mechanical motion drives otherwise endergonic reactions. Tackle badly tarnished spots and the. Copper Plating (E7) Bombardier: PPS 33. Further information as PDF fileA brief introduction to the superfinishing of the bearing rings process and its distinctive features has to be done in order to justify the model of wear to be used. Often taken for granted in most race cars, the ring and pinion is often used, abused, with little attention paid until a failure occurs. Microfinishing or Lapping Film are used to polish the surface. Copper from a previous preparation is deposited on the surface of the sample due to slight relief between the B 4 C particles and the aluminum matrix. Lowest International shipping rates to over 50 countries. g. Certifications: ISO 9001:2000; MIL-SPEC / MIL-STD; RoHS; FDA. Copper corrosion ISO 2160 ASTM D 130 3 hr at 100 °C 1b Additional Information Ester Active sulphur Inactive sulphur Phosphorus Calcium. The product uses rolls of thin foil (1/2 and one oz/ ft2) as raw material and output is in sheet form. Many non-cyanide copper processes operate between 54–65°C (130–150°F) with air agitation. Honing/Superfinishing - - - - - - Grinding - - - Drilling - - - - Broaching/Gear manufacturing - - - - - - General machining - - - Advantages • Low oil mist and foam characteristics, even at high pressures and flow rates, can lead to a reduction in oil. Metal parts tumbler is a large media tumbler. This is an engineered finish with the benefit of producing a low friction surface that will reduce. Isotropic superfinishing (ISF) machines utilize chemicals to accelerate material removal and finishing. Abstract and Figures. Thus, we have a large selection of tools available, even of ceramic-bonded superfinishing stones in custom dimensions. MR finishing carried out on the copper alloy workpiece to investigate the MR finishing process and their parametric analysis. or. Extremely coarse; best for removing large amounts of wood and rounding off corners. [74] developed a magnetic field-assisted internal finishing technique for copper tubes using MR fluid-based slurry mixed with diamond abrasives. It levels out the residues or excess products to provide a smooth surface and look. Fig. Abrasives of lapping: • Al 2 O 3 and SiC, grain size 5~100μm • Cr 2 O 3, grain size 1~2 μm • B 4 C 3, grain size 5-60 μm • Diamond, grain size 0. Copper peptides "serve as an antioxidant, promote collagen and elastin production and also remove damaged collagen and elastin from the skin," says Joanna Vargas, a celebrity facialist. It is difficult to super finish copper using traditional finishing processes as it is soft and can be scratched easily. A basic understanding of superfinishing for metal components. Sometimes referred to as micro-finishing, the superfinishing process refines a component’s surfaces. d'expérience . 02. By combining measurements of. Deburring Machines Blog. Superfinishing is a process that induces a vibratory rubbing action of the abrasive stone with respect to the workpiece [1]. SUBSCRIBE. The greatest possible flexibility when machining any raceway geometries; The highest quality is easily achieved, even for small batches and single parts; Creation of a surface with a high load-bearing capacity and good lubricating propertiesCopper is a trace element (minerals required in amounts 1 to 100 mg/day by adults) found in high concentrations in the brain, liver, and kidney. Free Technical Support and Product Advice at (323) 262-8108 or Toll Free. Polishing compounds produce highly lustrous, bright and buffed surfaces. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. This magnetite gives a black coating on the metal surface. It can be used in both dip and spray applications. Metal/Thermal Spray Coating Specialized with materials such as Ceramic, Tungsten, Titanium, Babbitt, Alumunium, Chrome, Nickel, Cobalt, Molydenum, Stainless Steel, Copper, Tin, Bronze, & all kind of solid material can be sprayed. 100-150. This process involves buffing the surface of copper objects with special compounds that remove oxidation from the metal’s surface to give it a shiny look. The ultrafine electrolytic copper powders were coated by silver using a combination of displacement reaction and reduction method, and the bimetallic core-shell powders with a 10wt. Honing Honing is a finishing process that uses fine abrasive stones to remove very small amounts of metal. Music. Learn what superfinishing is, what applications it should be used for and why you should take care when specifying surface finish parameters. Compaction and sintering (PM) is in many cases, the most cost-efficient way to produce large series of complex. This guide reviews some major finishing methods, as well as applications and considerations for choosing a metal finishing process. DIALUX®. Find Top Coats, Metallics, Solid Tones, RAL Colors, Clear Metallics, Two Coats & more. Copper is a really versatile metal. Our vibratory deburring media are suitable for deburring and edge finishing brass, aluminum. Superfinish polishing cream that revives the shine of copper alloys and precious metals. Stand-alone roll-to-roll laser machine are interim solutions. A component’s surface can impact a wide range of performance characteristics including contact fatigue, lubricant performance, bending fatigue, air/fluid flow, coating/plating adhesion, cleanliness, and many more. ), as illustrated in Fig. Third, to properly flush the gearbox, use one of the new gear lubricants, or a light viscosity of R&O compressor/turbine oil, filling to one-third the recommended operating oil level. The Cu2+associates with the anion SO42− in the solution to form copper sulfate. 0%. 1 to 100 μm. Recently, a hybrid. The copper electrode is designed to be hollow to allow the electrolyte to pass through it, and its position could be adjusted to change the gap. The buffing process usually uses a cloth wheel impregnated with loose abrasives as cutting compounds. 4 MET-ALL BC-10 Brass & Copper Polish. 7. Both Buffing and Polishing Process is a common term and these are used in Manufacturing Processes or you can say manufacturing industry. Prepared by Daniel M. As one of the four major machine tool shows in the world, it has attracted numerous exhibitors and visitors due to its significant influence and. Superfinishing is a chip removing machining process. 7. Burnishing is the process of rubbing metal with a small hard tool to compact the surface. Machine Systems: Rolls are used in conjunction with a dedicated lathe microfinishing unit Superfinisher (typically with 75mm cores). Figure 9—Close-up of a superfinished gear. Superfinishing rinse fluid filters; Tooling and technology consulting; Supfina Service Superfinishing tools available now. Table 2: Test gear specifications for C-GFU specimens for all gears prior to superfinishing. com Superfinishing, also known as micromachining, microfinishing, [1] and short-stroke honing, is a metalworking process that improves surface finish and workpiece geometry. 4%, with the low-end of 67830 yuan/mt and the high-end of 68100 yuan/mt. This group is exclusive for people looking to buy and sell everything supermodified related. The black oxide finish process involves dipping machined metal parts into an alkaline solution. These can be effective in the short term but leave a surface that is active and tarnishes again quickly. The sensor has a sufficiently high natural frequency and resolution to measure both the average and oscillatory forces to within 10 milli-Newton. Stainless steel, also known as inox, corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) and rustless steel, is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion. 120 machines in stock plus 70 tonnes of media for. Be it angle bars or stainless steel plates, they are able to cut to length to meet. The unwinding of the tape is carried out by a speed-controlled motor. Machine Systems: Rolls are used in conjunction with a dedicated lathe microfinishing unit Superfinisher (typically with 75mm cores). ISF increased power density allowable. The pH is around 9. Superfinishing is a mechanical material removal procedure applied to material surfaces after they have been finished or modified somehow. Novi, MI 48375. In particular, here are some specific best practices when designing copper parts: Maintain a minimum wall thickness of 0. in December, 2012. Give it a few minutes of dwell time, and then buff with a soft cloth, rinse, and dry. Additive Manufacturing Automation Blow Molding Compounding Drying Extrusion Feeding & Blending Heating & Cooling Injection Molding Recycling Resin. Abrasive used in lapping are, aluminium oxide,silicon carbide, chromium oxide. In a pinch, rely on the acid in tomatoes to effectively clean copper. 4. 1 Introduction 548. 1 Ton = 1,000 Kilograms. However, a conventional 3D cutting process is still complex to study in. Maximum part size of 1200 x 500 x 152 mm for CNC milling and 152 x 394 mm for CNC turning. The lapping speed is slightly less than honing. 4. Smelting and Extraction. 2 µin. Grinding is typically used to finish flat parts such as machine beds, bearing races, and other similar details. 25 ± 0. The key to excellence in superfinishing operations is the incoming grinding finish on the workpieces. Slightly higher in viscosity than KG3X which allows more oil to remain on the part while honing. Utilize our test center with a complete production area of superfinishing, fine grinding and double-disk grinding machines for your detailed sample machining and a measuring room for documentation to meet our quality assurances. The surface treatment is done using superfinishing film. October 18, 2022. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as. Jeff Schwarz. 71 µin. Supercopier, free download for Windows. REM Surface Engineering is the world’s leader in isotropic superfinishing technology. These small, individually packed bars are the product of choice for goldsmiths and watchmakers across the globe. See Figure 2 for the profilometer measurement results for three of the isotropic superfinish gears. This diagram allowed us to estimate the microstructure under non-equilibrium conditions. Grind Master is the Metal Finishing Expert, offering the widest range of Metal Finishing Machinery for applications ranging across round tubes and bars, square tubes and flat bars, cookware, pots and pans, hardware, to roll grinding. To do this we’re going to use Belt Buckle metallic cream. CBN. Our Bronzer has a natural SPF and comes in a beautiful copper tone leaving your skin looking radiant while illuminating a soft focus summertime glow. Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. Metals you can black oxide include stainless steel, powdered metals, copper, silver solder, zinc, etc. It can also be used for grinding applications, drilling and general machining of aluminium and yellow metals. H ave you ever been driving down the road and the check engine light suddenly comes on? Sometimes the oil service light might come on too. Isotropic Superfinishing is a chemically accelerated vibratory finishing process that is capable of generating surface finishes with an Arithmetic Mean Roughness (R a )< 3 min. Superfinishing removes the residual amorphous layer that is left from the previous processes. Carlton Cooke is an industry leading Metal Finishing, Plating, Polishing and Powder Coating company with over 45 years in the industry. VII. The ability to plate all metals including aluminum and stainless steel allows Carlton Cooke to service all industries including architecture and architectural metals, furniture, lighting, hardware and. Order spare parts. Sean Biello. Common triggers are debris in the thread, reusing overtightened hardware, and threading soft materials together such as stainless steel. Nano finishing is needed to improve the functional quality of various products such as biomedical implants, laser optics, etc. After isotropic superfinishing, the gears were measured once again to determine the final surface roughness. » Stone guide with integrated locking device » Stone guide with wear resistant guide for piston rodSuperfinishing experiments were conducted on cylindrical workpieces using a production-type superfinishing machine (Aerolide, Seibu Jido Kiki Co. This is the first step in concentrating the copper into a more useable form. Both these processes work are similar but. Machining of various materials using superfinishing technology; The right machining process for each specific workpiece; The right superfinishing system for each requirement Roll Grinding and Superfinishing with Superabrasives 3M’s Technical Service Engineers recommend using the following sequences for roll grinding and superfinishing a variety of roll materials. Ceramic Aluminium Oxide. Over the coming weeks, months and years this nish will undergo a series of changes until. Balasubramhanya and Srinivasan Chandrasekar and Thomas N. Superfinishing is another important method for the ultra-precision machining of bearing rollers, which can further improve the surface finish and correct the crown profile on the side surface. 3. The depth of cut has to be larger than the chip load, or you can get rubbing. Nano finishing is an emerging field of manufacturing science, which imparts a high level of surface smoothness, wherein surface roughness lies in range of the nanometeric scale (0. These are available in Grits upto 50,000 on the traditional grit scale. Go to the Facility. . Therefore, superfinishing processes like lapping, honing, polishing, burnishing are being employed to achieve and improve the above- mentioned functional properties in the machine component. SUPERFINISHING | 1,194 followers on LinkedIn. Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. Part II of this paper discusses the results of a more intensive micropitting testing performed according to FVA – Information – sheet. The copper electrode is designed to be hollow to allow the electrolyte to pass through it, and its position could be adjusted to change the gap. The numeric parameter – Ra. CMMRF process is used to carry out super finishing of metals and alloys and the results are compared with the results of CMMRF on silicon (monocrystalline as well as polycrystalline). ) There’s a perception by many that a Coppercoat bottom should be virtually maintenance-free, and when it’s not, that’s cited as a failure of the coating. By Fax: 519-686-9951. 860-736-1477. For this reason, Mr. Not only do we provide our clients with in-depth consulting, we work closely. Copper corrosion (3 hrs@100°C/212°F ) ASTM D130 / ISO 2160 Rating 4c Additional Information Ester Active Sulphur Inactive Sulphur Phosphorous Calcium Chlorine Zinc Additives ü ü ü ü Storage To avoid product deterioration always keep the container/drum tightly sealed.